Definitions Associated with my Study of Deviant Leadership - Note - This page is still a work in progress


Definition of Key Terms Related to my Study of Deviant Leadership
 Key terminology related to my study of Deviant Leadership refers to leadership applications that create and destroy value by presence, absence, or misapplication in the organizational environment.  The terminology related to leadership also includes followers who share, interact, and exchange both followership and leadership roles in the organizational CAS environment, and complexity-based leadership terms.  Terms crucial to my qualitative phenomenological methodology of processing and determining the essence of the lived experience of value-destroying leadership are also included in the definition of key terms.

Abusive supervision. Abusive supervision occurs when managers use malicious treatment through their power and positions to mistreat employees (Bandow & Hunter, 2009).

Adaptive leadership. Adaptive leadership is a leadership process of intentional interactions of interactive human agents (individual or collective) that generate advanced and novel solutions for adaptive needs of the organization by producing original ideas, innovation, flexibility, and change (Marion et al., 2007).

Administrative leadership. Administrative leadership is the managerial form of leadership that addresses the bureaucratic functions of the organization while not stifling the complex dynamics capable of producing adaptive change (Marion & Uhl-Bien, 2007).

Adverse leadership.  Adverse leadership is repeated and non-deliberate leader behaviors that violate a follower’s expectations about appropriate leadership conduct (Braun, Frey, Pawlowska, & Peus, 2010).
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Anti-organizational behavior. Anti-organizational behavior is action by a leader or follower that diminishes the organizational effectiveness or long-term value proposition of an organization in the competitive environment (Aasland, Einarsen, & Skogstad, 2010).

Anti-subordinate behavior. Anti-subordinate behavior by a leader is an action that diminishes the emotional state, physical well-being, or productivity of a follower in the organizational environment (Aasland et al., 2010).

Authentic leadership. Authentic leadership is the successful alignment of leaders’ inner values, beliefs, convictions, and behavior that influences followers’ behavior and attitude by presenting a model to motivate and stimulate them toward better performance (Khan, 2010).

Aversive leadership. Aversive leadership is a style of leadership or management dependant on coercive power through the specific use of intimidation tactics, reprimands (Hunter, Sawyer, & Thoroughgood, 2011).

Bracketing. Bracketing is a search for meaningful data where the focus of phenomenological research is placed in brackets and everything else is set aside so the entire research process is rooted solely on the topic and question (Moustakas, 1994).

Coalitional leadership. Coalitional leadership is defined as decisive individual action taken by a leader to forge sufficiently broad and deep cooperation to turn vision into reality, and is illustrated by creating a strategic vision, building a supportive coalition, institutionalizing the vision (Friedman & Sebenius, 2009). 

Complex adaptive systems (CAS). Complex adaptive systems are comprised of numerous interdependent agents, who in parallel, purposely pursue individual plans based on local knowledge or rules and adapt to feedback about the behavior of others in the system (Ashmos-Plowman & Duchon, 2008).  A CAS is defined as a set of interdependent agents forming an integrated whole, where an agent may be a person or an organization (Palmberg, 2009).  The essential characteristics of CAS are (a) sensitivity to initial conditions, (b) far-from-equilibrium state, (c) nonlinear interactions, and (d) emergent self-organization (Ashmos-Plowman & Duchon, 2008). 

Complex systems. Complex systems contain four common attributes: (a) self-organization through feedback loops, energy, and relationships, (b) inter-relatedness between constituent parts, (c) adaptive to ecologies of existence, and (d) emergence to a new order or structure (Obolensky, 2010). 

Complex systems leadership theory (CSLT). Complex systems leadership theory is a theoretical framework of specific leader behaviors employed to enable complex mechanisms and facilitate conditions where enabling leadership creates a working environment to facilitate quick and effective responses to unanticipated circumstances (Ashmos-Plowman & Lichtenstein, 2009). 

Complexity leadership theory (CLT). Complexity leadership theory is a theoretical framework of specific leader behaviors employed to enable complex mechanisms and facilitate conditions where agents are able to respond quickly and effectively to unanticipated circumstances (Marion, 2008). 

Complexity science (CS). Complexity science is comprised of non-deterministic sciences of uncertainty that includes self-organization principles, post normal science, and CAS theory that originated in 1984 with the creation of the definition of complex systems (Obolensky, 2010). 

Complexity theory (CT). Complexity theory is an aggregate applicable field of the study of dynamic behaviors of the complex interactions of interdependent and adaptive agents subject to internal and external forces (Marion, 2008).  Morrison (2010) characterized complexity theory as aggregate term of views and interpretations derived from the fields and theories associated with CS and related individual existing theories.  Complexity theory is a term derived from CS and the basis for CLT and generative leadership tenants and principles (Schwandt, 2008). 

Co-researcher. A co-researcher is a research participant possessing essential criteria of (a) experience with the phenomenon, (b) keen interest in understanding its nature and meaning, and (c) willing to participate in documented interviews and follow-up activities in support of a published work on the subject (Moustakas, 1994).  Co-researchers shall participate though individual in-depth interviews and follow-up activities to ensure total understanding of their individual lived experiences and perceptions are fully transferred for the benefit of the study (Moustakas, 1994).  Co-researcher participants only assist in the rich and deep understanding of his or her individual lived experiences and do not assist the study effort or research in any other way. 

Cybernetic leadership. Cybernetic leadership is a term characterizing leadership from the historical perspective of top-down, directed, intentional influence of leaders and control over followers and organizations in the attainment of OP&V (Ashmos-Plowman & Duchon, 2008). 

Darkside traits. Darkside traits are theoretical dimensions of the narcissistic personality, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy encompassed by the main personality traits of high impulsivity, callousness, interpersonal manipulation, exploitation, stimulation seeking, superficial charm, deceit, and remorselessness manifested in a leader (Ouimet, 2010). 

Decision-making skills. Decision-making skills are information processing actions and resulting acts of judgment made by people including the leader making the decision (Campbell, Finkelstein, & Whitehead, 2009). 

Derailed leadership. Derailed leadership is the combination of harmful actions to followers as well as behaviors by a leader that are harmful to an organization (Aasland et al., 2010). 

Despotic leadership. Despotic leadership is a deviant leader’s personal dominance, authoritarian attitude, self-aggrandizing, and self-serving behavior (De Hoogh & Den Hartog, 2008). 

Destructive leadership. Destructive leadership is the systematic and repeated behavior by a leader violating legitimate interests and undermining the organization’s performance or subordinates (Aasland et al., 2007). 

Deviant. Deviant is a descriptor based on the definition of deviancy by Merriam-Webster (2013) as deviating from an accepted norm. 

Deviant leadership. Deviant leadership is a hybrid descriptor that identifies deviancy in leadership applications that influence and destroy value, lives, or otherwise adversely affects followers and OP&V.  Leaders and leadership play key roles in creating deviancy through establishing rules, if violated, are the basis for designating an individual or leader as deviant (Burns, Goethals, & Sorenson, 2004).  Deviant leadership is systematic and repeated behaviors that violate legitimate interests of an organization by undermining its goals, tasks, resources, effectiveness, motivation, well-being, or job satisfaction of subordinates (Aasland et al., 2007).  Violation or passive absence of sound leadership principles that creates adverse influence or impact on individuals and OP&V is termed deviant leadership. 

Emergent leadership. Emergent leadership is a complexity based view of leadership behaviors that encourage a free flow of information, recognition of organizational disruptions, and enables growth, innovation, and creativity to generate OP&V (Ashmos-Plowman & Duchon, 2008). 

Emotional abuse. Emotional abuse is the extreme or outrageous infliction of severe emotional distress in the workplace either intentionally or recklessly (La Van & Martin, 2010). 

Emotional intelligence (EI). Emotional intelligence (EI) is knowing when and how to express emotions, the ability to control emotions, self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and the ability to manage relationships (Webb, 2009). 

Enabling leadership. Enabling leadership exists as an interface between administrative leadership and adaptive leadership, and facilitates conditions conducive to the complex interactive dynamics in the creation of OP&V by actions associated with CLT (Marion & Uhl-Bien, 2007). 

Entanglement. Entanglement is the co-joined elements of dynamic interaction of administrative and adaptive leadership that must team effectively for complex adaptive organizations to function properly in the emergent creation of OP&V (Marion & Uhl-Bien, 2009). 

Epoche. Epoche is the process of a researcher setting aside prejudgments regarding the phenomenon of investigation, enabling the researcher to complete the study free of preconceptions, beliefs, and knowledge of the phenomenon from prior experience and professional studies (Moustakas, 1994). Essential theme. An essential theme is a theme common to a phenomenon that is part of its essence without which, the phenomenon would not exist (van Manen, 1990). 

Ethical leadership. Ethical leadership creates a climate to guide a follower’s behavior and reflects the ethical character of the organization, including creating and implementing policies and practices, deploying guidelines, communicating expectations, and enforcement of consequences when employees fail to comply with articulated norms (Jaramillo, Mulki, & Locander, 2009). 

Field Test. A field test is a review of draft questions of a qualitative study to assist with its credibility and dependability by having field experts review appropriateness of interview questions and prompts to key concepts of the study (NCU Institutional Review Board [IRB], 2013).  A field test also ensures the questions are understandable and flow correctly (NCU IRB, 2013). 

Followers. Followers are subordinates in a hierarchal organizational structure who produce a majority of the organization’s value creation through direction and interaction with leaders, who are also very often themselves also followers (Stech, 2008).  An ideal follower shares a common goal with the leader and organization and works energetically to ensure the mutual success of all organizational stakeholders (Chaleff, 2009). 

Followership. Followership is a process followers may use at varying levels of effectiveness in their interaction with leaders in the attainment of personal goals and OP&V (Rost, 2008).  Followership is the support system from followers that leaders need to lead effectively in the organizational environment (Adair, 2008). 

Generative leadership. Generative leadership activities are incremental mechanisms that create variety, newness, diversity, encourage cross-boundary spanning, open communication, aid opportunity identification, and collaboration within a complex system (Hazy, 2008a).  Generative leadership encourages and enables group interaction to foster individual and collective competencies, communication skills, attain a positive climate, enhance creativity, make use of tensions, encouraging transparency, knowledge sharing, and creating conditions for work teams to collaborate and adapt effectively (Åberg et al., 2009). 

Horizonalization. Horizonalization is a phenomenological researcher’s technique of sorting applicable data where each statement initially is treated as having equal value with repetitive or overlapping ones deleted, leaving only the Horizons or statement units related to the phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994). 

Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) is a qualitative analysis methodology completed through an examination of how people make sense of their major lived experiences (Flowers, Larkin, & Smith, 2009). 

Imaginative variation. Imaginative variation follows phenomenological reduction of the data for possible meanings through imagination, varied frames of reference, polarities, reversals, and approaching the phenomenon from divergent perspectives, different positions, roles, or functions (Moustakas, 1994). 

Laissez-fare leadership. Laissez-fare leadership is a condition created by the inactions of a leader who passively allows things to run the way they are by not assuming responsibility, delaying decisions, and making little effort to understand followers’ needs and satisfy them; essentially non leadership (Al Amri & McLaurin, 2008). 

Leader bullying. Leader bullying is a set of strategically selected tactics of influence used by leaders to convey a selected image while targets are placed in compliant positions in the achievement of personal or organizational goals of the leader (Brour, Buckley, Ferris, Harvey, & Zinko, 2007). 

Leader styles. Leader styles are the manner that leaders cognitively process, make sense, and interact with their environment (Eubanks & Mumford, 2010). 

Leader traits. Leader traits differentiate leaders from other individuals and each other based on trait theory (Choi, Colbert, Judge, & Wang, 2012) by measures such as the big five (Dinh & Lord, 2012).  Leaders’ traits can be positive and contribute to successful OP&V, or negative with adverse results (Furnham, Hyde, & Trickey, 2012). 

Leadership. Leaders play a key role in completing organizational activities (McLean, 2006).  Leadership’s function is as an agent provocateur in measurable or tangible OP&V (Bass, 2008).  Individual leadership traits include behaviors, interactions, relationships, follower perceptions, influence over followers, influence on task goals, and influence on organizational culture as a process of influence toward the accomplishment of objectives (Amagoh, 2009).  Leadership correspondingly creates influence by correct or deviant application, resulting in either optimal or sub-optimal OP&V (Eubanks & Mumford, 2010). 

Leadership effectiveness. Leadership effectiveness is the extent the leaders’ unit performs its task successfully and attains goals such as meeting deadlines, profit, and market share (Hansbrough & Schyns, 2010a). 

Leadership corruption. Leadership corruption is the misuse of organizational position or authority for personal or organizational gain resulting in loss and a detrimental faith in businesses, institutions, and society in general (Frey, May, Peus, & Wesche, 2010). 

Leadership error. Leadership error is an unintended deviation or lack of attainment of goals (Bligh, Deng, & Kohles, 2010). 

Leadership failure. Leadership failure is the non-attainment of goals on significantly large statement of work or project (Boies, Robertson, & Robinson, 2010), or a negative and undesired outcome due to leadership error (Bligh et al., 2010). 

Leadership value-destruction. Leadership value-destruction, or simply value destruction, is the result of individual harm and near-term gain over long-term organizational goals (Eubanks & Mumford, 2010).  Any instance where a leader causes value destruction, degradation, or underperformance represents value-destruction for the purpose of the proposed study, including applications of deviant leadership resulting in possible short-term gain, but certain long-term loss (Covey, 2006). 

Leadership violations. Leadership violations are deliberate acts that deviate from normative optimal organizational leadership practices (Bligh et al., 2010). 

Mindfulness. Mindfulness is a state achieved by detaching from extraneous influences, noticing elements with a clear mind, and having an awareness to create a balanced functional model enabling leaders to let go of habitual patterns and rapidly adapting behavior to meet the demands of new and unexpected situations (Bryant & Wildi, 2008). 

Narcissistic leadership. Narcissistic leadership is a leader’s personality trait of disproportionate sense of self-focus, characterized by pursuit of grand fantasies and the compulsion to project power and dominance, resulting in negative organizational and individual impact (Allcorn & Godkin, 2011; McFarlin & Sweeney, 2010). 

Negative leadership. Negative leadership is an overall term that captures sub-optimal active and passive leadership behaviors that range from ineffective to destructive in nature (Schilling, 2009). 

Noema. Noema is what an individual experiences--the intuitive explication of a phenomenon in a pre-reflexive consciousness (Moustakas, 1994). 

Noesis. Noesis is a term referring to the act of perceiving, feeling, thinking, remembering, or judging; all of which reveal meanings that are concealed and hidden from consciousness that need to be drawn out (Moustakas, 1994). 

Organizational performance and value (OP&V). Organizational performance and value is the generation of whatever value the organization seeks to create in terms of profits or whatever other tangibles the organization is chartered to obtain or create. 

Perceived leader integrity. Perceived leader integrity is the perception that leaders’ lack of integrity limits ability to achieve the strategic goals of the organization, places organizations in compliance difficulty, lacks effective decision-making ability, create morale problems, or create communication issues that damage organizational effectiveness (Holt & McCann, 2009). 

Petty tyranny. Petty tyranny is a leader’s exercise of authority and power in an oppressive, capricious, and vindictive manner that acts in an arbitrary and self-aggrandizing manner, belittles subordinates, lacks consideration for others, requires conflict resolution, discourages follower initiative, and uses non-contingent punishments (Grandy & Starratt, 2010). 

Phenomenological reduction. Phenomenological reduction is the description in textural language what one sees in terms of the external object and the internal act of consciousness, experience, and relationship between phenomenon and self (Moustakas, 1994). 

Phenomenology. Phenomenology is a qualitative research method that derives understanding of the meaning and essence of a subject through the study of human experience and the way things present themselves to us in and through such experience (Sokolowski, 2009).  Phenomenological research is a systematic scientific study (van Manen, 1990) of phenomena in terms of its constituents and meanings, discerning the features of consciousness and arriving at an understanding of the shared invariant essences of the experience (Moustakas, 1994). 

Pilot study. A pilot study permits a researcher opportunity to acquaint themselves with a study system as well as avail an opportunity to practice, refine, and validate techniques that will support the full study (Colegrave & Ruxton, 2011).  A pilot study assists with validity and reliability of a study (NCU IRB, 2013). 

Saturation of data. Saturation of data occurs when there is a strong likelihood that any additional data collected will only repeat data already collected (Bunce et al., 2006). 

Servant leadership. Servant leadership is a servitude-based approach to leadership recognizing a moral imperative of discovery of existing needs served in the absence of extenuating personal benefits with follower-centric stronger trust effects created towards their leaders (Pekerti & Senjaya, 2010). 

Social undermining. Social undermining is a leader’s intentional offense that destroys a follower’s favorable reputation, ability to accomplish work, or capability to build and maintain positive relationships in the organizational environment (Crossley, 2008). 

Supervisor aggression. Supervisor aggression is leadership behavior intended to cause physical or psychological harm to followers in an organizational context (Aquino & Thau, 2009). 

Supportive-disloyal leadership. Supportive-disloyal leadership is leadership behavior that favors a leader’s subordinates but is detrimental to the long-term interests of the overall organization (Aasland et al., 2010). 

Toxic leadership. Toxic leadership is a leader’s intentional and unintentional destructive behavior or dysfunctional personal characteristics resulting in significant long-term harm to followers and organizations (Grandy & Starratt, 2010). 

Transactional leadership. Transactional leadership is an exchange-based interaction between the leader and the follower based on subordinates' task performance in terms of meeting organizational goals and objectives through contingent rewards (Ceri-Booms, 2010). 

Transformational leadership. Transformational leadership stimulates interest among followers to view their work from new perspectives, generate awareness of the vision of the organization, and develop followers to higher levels of ability and potential (Al Amri & McLaurin, 2008). 

Tyrannical leadership. Tyrannical leadership is the concurrent application of leadership actions that support organizational gains, but also includes actions that diminish the emotional state, physical well-being, or productivity of followers in the organizational environment (Aasland et al., 2010). 

Workplace aggression. Workplace aggression is a counterproductive force in the organizational environment and is behavior intended to violate established norms, endangering the wellness of an entity and its individuals (Irani & Oswald, 2009). 

Workplace bullying. Workplace bullying is the undesired and unwanted abuse of any power with the intent or result of intimidation, control or to otherwise strip a target of their esteem, self-respect, development potential, or other rights in the workplace (Carbo & Hughes, 2010). 

Workplace victimization. Workplace victimization, or simply, victimization, is harm to an employee’s well-being by an act of aggression perpetrated by one or more members of the organization including leaders or leadership (Aquino & Thau, 2009). 

Summary

Deviant leadership is a pervasive destructive reality in the complex modern organizational environment that creates damage and loss that warranted further study (Schilling & Schyns, 2013) to add to the theoretical and practical working knowledge base for effective mitigations and strategies.  Key themes associated with deviant leadership are optimal leadership as a point of departure for deviant leadership, followers, followership, and the CAS within which they interact.  Followers are key creators of OP&V, most directly engaged with leaders, and the most immediate access and point of exposure for studying the phenomenon of deviant leadership.  Qualitative phenomenological exploration through followers who have been subjected or witness to deviant leadership in the complex global competitive environment will explicate the invariant nature of the meaning, essence, and being of the phenomenon.  The purpose of completing the study is to produce a meaningful theoretical understanding for increased awareness for mitigations and strategies to limit or eliminate deviant leadership and increase follower well-being and OP&V in organizational CAS.